Nobody is Going to Fly on Mir (at least, this year)
S. Shamsutdinov

In the previous edition of NK, we mentioned that on May 14, at the CTC, Peter Llewellyn’s, a British businessman, space flight training program was supposed to have started. Llewellyn offered his financial help ($100 ml) to preserve Mir orbital station in exchange for a chance to fly on board of Mir. On May 14, Llewellyn arrived in Russia. Some had been looking forward to his arrival, thinking he would really save Mir, some were just waiting when he proves everyone he’s just a crook. Nobody had expected that during Llewellyn’s two-week stay in Russia, very dramatic decisions concerning Russian manned cosmonautics would be made. …On May 20, in the White Hall of CTC headquarters, Peter Llewellyn was officially introduced to the CTC commanders and instructors…

Introducing Peter Llewellyn
A. Glushko

Next few days after the official press conference, Llewellyn was showed around. He visited CTC gymnasiums. On May 24, instead of training at CTC, he went to Energia, where he spent the whole day. As it turned out, he had a confidential meeting with leaders of RKK and Energia. The same day, he returned to Star City, packed, and disappeared in an unknown direction. On May 25, it was announced that Llewellyn’s flight training program had been cancelled. Read about the real reasons behind cancellation and short biography of Peter Llewellyn in the full version of the article.

June 4^th. 20 Russian cosmonauts, 11 cosmonauts-to-be, and one French cosmonaut, 9 groups all in all, are training at CTC of Y.A. Gagarin. This article talks about groups’ composition and training programs.

On conversion of Mir operation to unmanned mode

After careful analysis of the situation with Mir manned station, realistically assessing critical state of about 200 space-rocket ventures, realizing exceptional role of manned cosmonautics (Mir in particular) for sustaining scientific-technical potential of Russia and for hundred thousands highly qualified industry specialists, realizing state-level importance of issues in consideration, and also taking into consideration prestige and future of Russia, Council of Chief Designers makes the following decision:……..

Full text of the resolution is available.

Russian President’s Press Department Release
Moscow, Kremlin, May 21, 1999

Following the meeting with the leaders of the space-rocket industry and Russian space pilots, which took place on April 12, President of Russian Federation gave a set of assignments to the government of Russian Federation.

In particular, President of RF directed the Russian government to provide priority support to Russia’s space activities.

Unconditional fulfillment of RF obligation to launch Service Module of the International Space Station was especially emphasized.

President of RF approved space-rocket industry leaders’ proposal to extend Mir station operation at the expense of non-budget funds.

Head of the RF government was assigned to work out with the Americans issues of raising quotas in 1999-2000 on commercial launches (using Proton launch vehicle), simplification of licensing procedures, and attracting investments in the framework of joint projects in the field of space activities.

Competent Russian institutions were assigned to analyze NATO usage of space means during military operations against Yugoslavia and make proposals on correction of Russian national programs directed at creation and exploitation of appropriate domestic space means and arms.

Assignments provide for development and ratification of measures on keeping orbital positions and frequency range of Russia for national space systems.

Russian President also gave some other assignments.

On May 20, 22:30 UTC, 8K82K Proton-K (39602-series) vehicle launched Nimiq spacecraft. Launch of Nimiq came within the framework of ILS, a joint venture established in 1995 by Lockheed Martin, Khrunichev Space Center and RKK Energia. The main purpose of Nimiq is provision of digital TV and radio programs via ‘direct-to-home’ broadcast for Canada and continental part of the USA. The original date of launch was 24 September 1998. However, due to technical problems with the craft’s transponders, it was postponed. The article carefully follows the pre-launch ‘adventures’ of Nimiq and gives detailed chronology of launch itself.

Launch Preparations at Baikonur
O. Urusov

Astra-1N spacecraft was delivered to cosmodrome on 05.19.99. Proton K launch vehicle preparations are done according to the schedule (detailed schedule is given in the full version of the article).

Okean-O No. 1L and Zenit-2 launch vehicle were delivered to Baikonur on 03.21.99. During launch of Raduga No. 45, technical problems with the upper-stage were detected. The launch vehicle had to be dismounted; launch was cancelled. On 05.26.99, Yamal-100 craft was delivered to cosmodrome.

The current Russian Federal Space Program provides further development of electric rocket propulsion thrusters (EPT) with the emphasis in the following fields:

• Development of experimental models designed for serial spacecraft
• Scientific research aimed at improving currently utilized EPTs and designing new, more efficient ones
• Investigation of EPTs influence on the function of spacecraft subsystems with long duration
• Preparation and test flights of new EPT prototypes

Communications and broadcast satellites today have to be economically efficient and profitable. One of the methods to extend their operation period is to equip them with EPT systems. These systems have a long operation period and low propellant cost, and thus, efficiency. Traditionally, in Russia, geostationary communications craft are equipped with EPTs for north-south and west-east satellite orbit correction. Today, the trend is designing EPT systems for small satellites that operate as satellite constellations. Recently, even more challenging issues have been taken into consideration: satellites orbit attitude and inclination control, transfer of spacecraft from low to high orbits, and interplanetary missions.

EPTs R&D program in Russia began about 40 years ago under active efforts of many scientific organizations. In the course of this period, almost all known engine types (i.e., electric thermal thrusters, arcjets, pulsed plasma thrusters, magnetic plasmodynamic thrusters, Hall thrusters with closed drift of electrons) have been developed and thoroughly investigated. Most success was achieved in stationary plasma thrusters development by OKB Fakel with active participation of RSC Kurchatov Institute, MAI, RIAME MAI, CIAM, MIREA and others.

Presently, three RSA organizations-contractors are involved in the developments in this field: Keldysh Research Center, OKB Fakel, and TsNIIMash. Several projects are supervised by MAI, RIAME MAI, MGTU, and NIIEM attached to the Russian Ministry of Economics. During the 25 years of EPTs use in space, they proved to be highly reliable and compatible with different satellite systems. In addition, EPTs ground test results have not been much different from operational characteristics. EPTs are a priority and basis of Russian Space Agency’s program in the field of rocket engines development.

Hall Electric Thrusters with Closed Drift of Electrons

Within the framework of Hall electric thrusters development, with the Xe propellant, two EPTs with long (Stationary Plasma Thrusters— SPT) and short (Thrusters with Anode Layer— TAL) acceleration zone are studied. Two configurations of TAL were designed— double-stage (Xe is ionized in one discharge and accelerated in another) and single stage (ionization and acceleration combined in one discharge). Specific impulse of double-stage thruster is higher than 2000 sec, whereas Isp of single stage thruster is in the range of 1000-3000 sec. Operational period is slightly higher for SPT than for TAL. The latter with ISP higher than 3000 sec can compete with ion thrusters.

First practical use of SPTs dates back to 1972. Since 1972, 118 SPTs designed by OKB Fakel have flown to space, and about 50 are still operating. Total lifetime in space amounts to more than 10,000 hours. First generation EPT systems, based on SPT-50 and SPT-60, were used on spacecraft designed by NII of electromechanics. Starting from 1982, EPT systems based on SPT-70 and SPT-100 were used on spacecraft designed by NPO PM and Lavochkin NPO. Currently, OKB Fakel is testing SPD-100 for Express-A and Express-2000, new geostationary communications satellites, and for advanced telecommunications spacecraft of Gals-R16 series, designed by NPO PM.

Success of SPTs operation in space made it possible to use EPTs of this type for commercial purposes. Propulsion systems based on SPT-70 and SPT-100 are installed on Kupon craft of Bankir system, designed by Lavochkin NPO (client: Central Bank of RF), as well as on Yamal-series craft, designed by Energia (client: Gasprom) and on SeSat, designed by NPO PM (client: ESA). There are also plans to install Russian Hall EPTs on Western craft such as Stentor, Omega, Selestry, Teledesic and others.

Increase in modern and advanced geostationary satellites lifetime, complexity of on-board engine tasks, strict requirements to thrusters in terms of efficiency, reliability and compatibility with spacecraft equipment stimulated creation of new and constant update of existing EPTs in power range 0.5-1.5 kW. The goals are as follows:

• to increase the operation period up to 10,000 hours and more, unstop
• to extend efficient Isp range to 2500-3000 sec
• to decrease the plume angular divergence in order to reduce its influence on spacecraft elements
• to control thrust vector in order to increase precision and flexibility of spacecraft correction process

To achieve these goals, OKB Fakel and RIAME MAI have undertaken research on improving SPD-100 features. In addition, Keldysh Research Center and TsNIIMash are creating new models of Hall thrusters such as T-100 of SPT-type and D55 of TAL-type. On the base of D55, TAL-WSF was designed. These EPTs have similar features, providing thrust level of about 80 mN, specific impulse 1600-1650 and efficiency of approximately 50%.

During the last 3-5 years, EPT systems have been installed on a wider range of craft. A set of new EPT prototypes, enabling extension of power range in both directions--0.5-1.5 kW (i.e., 50-350 W in one direction and up to 10 kW in another), was developed.

World demand for small spacecraft weighing just tens or hundreds kilograms has stimulated demand for EPTs with low (less than 500 W) level of power consumption. For this purpose, SPT-35 and SPT-50 (OKB Fakel), X-40 (Keldysh Research Center and MAI), small SPT (RIAME MAI), and D38 were designed.

Low power Hall thrusters features

*Not including Xe loss on cathode-compensator

Increase of power consumption by ‘heavy’ spacecraft and advancement of on-board engineering has resulted in creation of powerful EPTs for inter-orbital flight purposes, with tasks ranging from orbit raising to payload transfer from low near-earth orbit to geostationary orbit. This class of thrusters can find their application as part of propulsion systems of manned orbital stations for atmospheric drag compensation and orbit keeping. Research done by Energia, Keldysh Research Center and TsNIIMach illustrated that in the course of 10 years, employment of 10 kW Hall thrusters for sustaining ISS orbit instead of liquid rocket engines will save 20 launches of Progress M craft.

In this category of 10 kW Hall thrusters, OKB Fakel and NIIPME MAI have designed SPT-140, SPT-160, and SPT-180. At Keldysh Research Center, SPT T-160 was designed. On the basis of accelerators with anode layer, TsNIIMach has developed D-100-1 (single stage) and D-100-2 (double-stage) thrusters. Developments of 50 kW EPTs in single module are under way.

High power Hall thrusters features

*Without cathode-compensator propellant losses

Besides works on increasing efficiency of this type of thrusters, R&D on how to increase operation period up to 10,000 hrs and more are also underway.

SPT parameters

Part of Russian Space Agency’s responsibilities is organization and support of flight tests of new models of craft service system, as well as of probes directed at studying craft systems interaction with space environment.

TsNIIMach is involved with two TAL test flight programs: one together with NIIIEM (Meteor-3M spacecraft; engine module on the base of D55) and the other in the framework of joint Russian-American program (Russia: TsNIIMach, Energia, IKI RAN; USA: NASA, LeRC, Boeing, Moog). The latter program provides for launch of craft with EPT system (designed on the basis of D38) from Mir. The purpose is to work out the technology of assembly and launch of subsatellites from space station, including assembly and tests of EPT system, and to demonstrate the effectiveness of EPT application for spacecraft orbit transfer.

At Keldysh Research Center, T-160 thruster flight test preparations are in process. It is supposed to be used with Express-M craft, designed by NPO PM, organization that has vast experience with EPTs utilization. Thruster power consumption level will be about 5 kW, which is three times higher than that of SPTs tested in space and being prepared for tests. This will allow usage of powerful EPTs as craft primary propulsion systems.

SPT flight history

Ion Thrusters

Main purpose of ion thrusters R&D is creation of EPTs with power rate less rate than 500 W, intended for use with small, new generation spacecraft. With decrease of power consumption and size of EPT, thruster efficiency noticeably decreases due to ion cost increase. As a result, currently no effective ion thrusters with power rate less than 300 W have been created. Therefore, the task to design small-sized discharge chambers with low ion cost and high propellant utilization efficiency is quite relevant.

Keldysh Research Center together with MAI have developed two prototypes of ion thrusters with ion beam diameter equal to 5 and 10 cm. For the first 50-150 W engine: thrust in the range of 1.5-5.0 mN and Isp 3100-3700 sec; for second 150-500 W engine: thrust 6-19 mN, Isp 2470-3500. Efficiency of the thrusters is not below 55%. NIIPME MAI is doing research on whether it is possible to create high frequency EPT with low power consumption.

This kind of thrusters can be used with low orbit, small communications craft and for remote earth sensing for external disturbances compensation (atmospheric drag, sun pressure, and gravitational disturbances). In addition, it would be appropriate for satellites constellations orbit and position keeping and for small satellites orbit raising and subsequent attitude control.

Pulsed Plasma Thrusters

To reach impulse of 25-80 kN x sec, which is sometimes problematic, pulsed plasma thrusters (PPTs) can be utilized.

NIIPME MAI is improving the work process organization in erosion PPTs differentiated by simple design, low production and operation costs, and ability to function at power levels equal to several watts. One of the ways to increase PPT efficiency is to improve the correlation between the processes of propellant mass exhaust flow during the discharge and its acceleration due to interactions with discharge current.

Recently, it has been illustrated that it is possible to create a thruster with a discharge of 80-100 J, 15-20% thrust efficiency, and exhaust velocity 10-14 km/sec. Prototype of such EPT is now passing ground tests. Future plans provide for increase in efficiency of erosion PPT by 20-25%.

Parameters of erosion IPT

*PPT features prior to modernization

Electric Thermal Thrusters

Besides SPTs, since 1971, Russian satellites have successfully employed DEN-15 electric thermal thrusters, developed by NII of electromechanics. Meteor-3, Meteor-Priroda, Resource-O spacecraft and Elektro geostationary satellite are equipped with this type of thrusters. Engine power, using ammonia as a propellant, varies in the range of 100-400 W; thrust is 50-300 mN, and ISP is 210-270 sec. Total thrust impulse can reach 500 kN x sec.

Currently, on the base of DEN-15, DEND-15 arcjet thruster is being developed. Main purpose is to achieve increase in specific impulse. DEND-15 with Isp 450-520 uses ammonia as propellant, and its power consumption level ranges from 800 to 900 W. Keldysh Research Center is currently involved in development of hydrazine thruster with power range 0.6-2.0 kW, thrust 100-300 mN and Isp more than 500 sec. Also, there are works on design of hydrazine arcjet thrusters with kilowatt power rate at OKB Fakel.

After an agreement between the Russian and Kazakh governments on the status of Baikonur, a serious problem that the administration of Baikonur city had to face dealt with reallocating to Russia pensioners and retired military personnel, who for many years worked at the cosmodrome. After the disintegration of the Soviet Union, these people jobless and with no means to move to Russia on their own, all of a sudden became citizens of a foreign state. However, Russia finally came up with the funds to solve this problem. Today, Baikonur is reviving since many of highly qualified human resources returned to cosmodrome after getting their own residence in Russia.

First expedition to ISS is scheduled in March 2000. This was an announcement made by Frank Calbertson, ISS Assistant Project Manager, during the press conference that took place right after Discovery launch. He also said that the date of Russian Service Module launch had been determined. Launch is expected to take place on November 12, 1999. In addition, Russian space agency and NASA have finally agreed that in case of failure to dock SM with Zarya-Unity, an emergency rescue crew will be sent to perform manual docking (using Teleoperational Control Mode system). Previously, two ISS-1 cosmonauts were supposed to perform this operation (space for a third crewmember will be occupied by Teleoperational Control System equipment). However, Russian Space Agency and NASA could not reach a conclusion on who to send. Russian Space Agency wanted to send Y. Gidzenko and S. Krikalev, whereas NASA insisted that Sheaperd be the second member. Now, it has been decided to form two, new rescue crews (main and back-up crews). Each of them will include two Russian cosmonauts. According to preliminary information, the following candidates are being considered: G. Padalka, V. Korzun, T.Musabaev, V. Tokarev, N. Budarin, S. Treschev, and A. Poleschuk. According to S. Lobanov, deputy director of CTC learning department, crews should be formed by the middle of June. It’s assumed that the rescue crew (if necessary) will fly on Soyuz TM No. 204 craft, which is ready for exploitation. Besides manual docking of SM with Zarya-Unity, cosmonauts will have to activate SM and perform several other operations, all in all spending on ISS 40 days.

In Gagarin City, Smolenskaya Oblast, hometown of Y.A. Gagarin, world’s first cosmonaut, staff of Gagarin United Memorial Museum for the past 10 years has been working on the idea of creating museum dedicated to History of Man’ First Flight to Space. During the course of several years, about 10,000 exhibits, dedicated to the first manned flight, have been collected. Experimental exhibition is already open. This new, unique museum will be totally dedicated to one event, with focus on its both historical and scientific-technical aspects. With financial and public support, new museum is expected to open in 2001, 40^th anniversary of the man’s first flight to space.

On May 12, Russian Ministry of State Property passed decree No. 663-r, which granted KB Armatura a status of Khrunichev Space Center branch. On June 2, Anatoly Kiselev, General Director of KSC, signed the corresponding decree. Recently, KSC has been expanding its activities via opening of new branches. For example, in 1996, Khrunichev Telecom company, a provider of Iridium mobile communications services in Russia, was created. In 1997, on a basis of the former TsNII of Russian Military Space Forces, new KSC branch (Space Systems NII) was open. Thus, the trend of space rocket enterprises consolidation, which is seen today in the US and European Community, is now taking place in Russia as well.

On May 14, 1999, NPO Energomash of academician V. P. Glushko, celebrated its 70^th anniversary. The article includes history of this unique enterprise famous for its liquid-propellant rocket engines.

Alternative Moon
Dedicated to the 30^th anniversary of first human landing on Moon
A. Borisov, Y. Juravin

The article describes space race between Soviet Union and US: insight to the Soviet manned lunar program.

During our space flight, the heat regulation system was depressurized in several modules. A small hole formed in a manifold could have caused an irreversible damage. The coolant would have leaked through this hole into the atmosphere of the station. Then, the heat regulation system would have simply stopped functioning. The result would have been an increase in the temperature, which, in turn, would have caused system and equipment failure. We were lucky to finally find the damaged area. But what would have happened had the accident occurred outside the visible range? In this situation, a defect detector would have been very useful. The search for specialists who could help us solve this kind of problem in future was successful. We found people who developed devices that detect metal flaws almost in any structure. Those who are interested in finding our more about this unique technology could reach us at tel. (095) 283-1837, fax (095) 282-8212, e-mail lazut@dol.ru

Laser Technology in Space Systems
A. Kopik

Laser technology has been widely used in space engineering for quite a long time. However, in the nearest future, Russian cosmos risks losing its high-precision laser systems. Economic problems that Russian laser centers are experiencing today have caused the Committee on geopolitical issues to organize parliamentary hearings in State Duma on Russian Laser Technologies on the Threshold of the 21^st Century. Several reports on Russian laser technology as well as on state of Russian laser centers were made. One important, non-economic problem that was emphasized in the hearings has to do with lack of Russian laser technology market infrastructure and very little interaction between state and ‘laser community.’ Today, according to Ivan Kovsh, President of Laser Association, Russian laser centers (i.e., NII, KB, factories, small ventures) are existing simply as a collection of private, separate from each other entities, without common structure. Unfortunately, a single organization, uniting all national laser centers, does not exist. Following parliamentary hearings, a whole set of recommendations for President, government, and State Duma of Russian Federation was prepared. One of the recommendations was to fulfill the Federal program aimed at laser industry development and providing Russia with domestic laser technology.

Launch of Okean-O spacecraft (launch vehicle—Zenit) is postponed for approximately one month and is supposed to take place on June 21-23. Postponement is due to problems with Turkmenian side regarding rents for field use.

Since launches of ICBMs that are on active duty take place approximately once a year according to the program on extending ICBMs operation period, Strategic Rocket Forces are supposed to launch 15A35 this fall. It’s likely that launch will take place from the 175^th site of Plesetsk cosmodrome. This site is intended for use in the framework of Rockot conversion program.

In the beginning of February 1999, Russian craft Gals-1 (assigned position—36^o E), launched on January 20, 1994 was deorbited. Gals-1 was one of three craft used for broadcast of NTV+ TV programs. Currently at 36^o E, Gals-2 (launched on 11.17.95) and Bonum-1 (11.23.98) are continuing to operate.

On May 19, Service Module, third part of the International Space Station, arrived in Baikonur for tests and preparations for launch, preliminary scheduled on October 20.

Launches On June 3, 1999, test launch of ICBM Topol-M was successfully completed. Missile hit its designated target, located on Kamchatka peninsula.